Kodi mkhalidwe thupi? Boma la nkhani

Mafunso zimene boma la loitanirana, zimene zimaonetsa ndi katundu ndi zolimba, zakumwa ndi mpweya ataphimbidwa mu maphunziro angapo maphunziro. Pali atatu limati chakale cha nkhaniyi, ndi mbali zake khalidwe dongosolo. kumvetsa ndi fundo yofunika kwambiri kumvetsa sayansi dziko lapansi, zamoyo za ntchito mafakitale. Nkhanizi akuphunzira sayansi, umagwirira, madera, nthaka, umagwirira thupi ndi khalidwe ena a sayansi. Zinthu ndi, akamaziwononga, mu umodzi wa mitundu zitatu za limati zikhoza kusintha ndi kuwonjezeka kapena mwayamba kufooka kutentha, kuthamanga. Taganizirani kusintha zotheka boma wina ndi mzake monga zidzachitika mu chikhalidwe, luso ndi moyo watsiku ndi tsiku.

Kodi mkhalidwe thupi?

Mawu a chiyambi Latin "aggrego" ikumasuliridwa njira Russian "angagwirizanitse." Scientific mawuwa amanena za mkhalidwe womwewo thupi mankhwala. The kuli pansi mfundo zina za kutentha ndi kuthamanga zolimba osiyana, mpweya ndi zakumwa ndi zina za zipolopolo onse a Dziko Lapansi. Kuwonjezera pa limati zitatu za loitanirana, palinso chachinayi. Pa kutentha yapamwamba ndi pa kuthamanga mpweya zonse ndi n'kukhala plasma. Kumvetsetsa zimene boma la loitanirana, m'pofunika kukumbukira particles tating'ono kwambiri zimene zimapanga nkhani ndi thupi.

Mu chiwembu lili pamwambali: ndipo - mpweya; B - madzi; ndi - olimba. Mu Chiwerengerochi mabwalo amalembedwa zinthu structural zinthu. chizindikiro ichi zoona, ma atomu, mamolekyu, ayoni si mipira olimba. Maatomu wapangidwa pachimake ndithu mlandu padziko limene ikuyenda pa liwiro zoipa mlandu ma elekitironi. Chidziwitso cha dongosolo tosaoneka nkhani kukuthandizani kumvetsa bwino kusiyana kumene kulipo pakati zosiyanasiyana akaphatikiza.

Mfundo za microworld kuti: ku Greece wakale m'ma XVII

Mfundo yoyamba za particles, chimene thupi apangidwe, anaonekera ku Greece. Anzeru Demokrit ndi Epicure anayambitsa mfundo monga atomu. Iwo ankakhulupirira kuti zing'onozing'ono particles indivisible zinthu zosiyana ndi mawonekedwe kumatanthauza kukula, amatha kuyenda ndi anzake wina ndi mzake. Atomism anali patsogolo kwambiri kwa nthawi, ziphunzitso za ku Girisi. Koma chitukuko ndayima kaye mu mibadwo pakati. Kuyambira pamenepo asayansi ankazunza kusaka wa Roma Katolika. Choncho, mpaka masiku ano panalibe mfundo achindunji zimene boma la nkhaniyi. Pokhapokha asayansi XVII m'ma Robert Boyle, M. Lomonosov, D. Dalton, Lavoisier anakonza ya atomiki-maselo chiphunzitso, simunataye kufunika awo lero.

Ma atomu, mamolekyu, ayoni - particles tosaoneka dongosolo nkhani

A pantchito yojambula kumvetsa microcosm zinachitika m'zaka za m'ma XX, pamene elekitironi maso kupangidwa. Polingalira za atulukira asayansi patsogolo, anakwanitsa anagona chithunzi coherent wa microworld lapansi. Chiphunzitso amene akufotokoza mmene khalidwe la particles zing'onozing'ono kanthu, m'malo ovuta, iwo ali m'munda wa kwadzidzidzi sayansi. Pakuti kumvetsetsa mayiko osiyana akaphatikiza pa nkhaniyi mokwanira kudziwa mayina ndi mbali structural ndi tinthu chititsimikizira kuti apange zinthu zosiyanasiyana.

1. Maatomu - mankhwala indivisible particles. Kusungidwa mu zochita mankhwala, koma adzaonongedwa mu nyukiliya. Zitsulo ndi zipangizo zina zambiri dongosolo atomiki olimba akaphatikiza boma m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa.
2. Mamolekyulu - particles zimene zinapangidwa anawonongedwa mu zochita mankhwala. Kapangidwe maselo ndi mpweya, madzi, carbon dioxide, sulfure. boma thupi la mpweya, asafe, woipa sulfure, mpweya, mpweya, m'mikhalidwe ochiritsira - gaseous.
3. Ayoni - particles mlandu, amene n'kukhala maatomu ndi mamolekyulu kuti amagwira kapena kutaya ma elekitironi - tosaoneka particles zoipa mlandu. Amaayoni dongosolo zambiri mchere, monga sodium, chitsulo ndi sulphate mkuwa.

chinthu chilichonse, zomwe particles imakonzedwa m'njira inayake mu mlengalenga. Linalamula wachibale udindo wa maatomu, ayoni, mamolekyulu otchedwa latisi. Childs, amaayoni ndi atomiki crystalline latisi yodziwika kwa zolimba maselo - zakumwa ndiponso gasi. Mkulu kuuma diamondi ndi osiyana. crystalline ake atomiki latisi popangidwa ndi maatomu mpweya. Koma zofewa graphite komanso imakhala ndi ma atomu a chinthu mankhwala. iwo okha mosiyana anagawira m'malere. Avereji akaphatikiza boma sulfure - olimba, koma pa kutentha zinthu amakhala madzi ndi amorphous misa.

Thunthu mu boma olimba

The zolimba m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa kusungidwa voliyumu ndi mawonekedwe. Mwachitsanzo, tirigu, njere ya shuga, mchere, chidutswa miyala kapena zitsulo. Ngati inu kutenthetsa shuga, mankhwala akuyamba kusungunula, osatembenukira ku bulauni madzi viscous. Lekani Kutentha - kumbuyo kupereka olimba. Choncho wina wa zinthu zazikulu za thupi lolimba kwa kusintha madzi - Kutentha kapena kuukitsa mphamvu mkati mwa particles wa nkhaniyi. Olimba boma mchere umene ntchito mu chakudya, nawonso kusintha. Koma kuti kusungunula sodium kolorayidi ndi, muyenera kutentha kuposa ndi Kutentha shuga. chakuti shuga wapangidwa ndi mamolekyulu, ndi mchere - a ayoni mlandu, amene kwambiri azifunana. zolimba alibe kusunga mawonekedwe awo mu madzi mawonekedwe, chifukwa lattices pa galasi anawonongedwa.

Phula boma ndi kusungunuka mchere ndi chifukwa chotupa kulankhulana pakati pa ayoni mu makhiristo. Sichingapatule particles adawalamulira kuti akhoza kukwaniritsa milandu magetsi. salt osungunula kuchititsa magetsi, ndi ochititsa. Mankhwala a, zitsulo kapangidwe mafakitale zolimba mtima mu madzi kwa munthu wa mankhwala buku kapena opatsa akalumikidzidwa osiyana. Panali kugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri kasakaniza wazitsulo zitsulo. Pali njira zingapo ankagwirizana ndi kusintha dziko la loitanirana zipangizo olimba yaiwisi.

Phula - mmodzi wa limati zofunika loitanirana

Pamene anazitsanulira mwa wozungulira pansi botolo ndi 50 ml ya madzi, Tingaone kuti zinthu adzakhala yomweyo mankhwala cholandirira. Koma mwamsanga pamene ife litulukira madzi botololo, madzi yomweyo kufalikira padziko tebulo. Voliyumu ya madzi sizinasinthe - 50 ml, ndi mawonekedwe ake idzasintha. zizindikiro zimenezi ndi khalidwe la madzi mawonekedwe a kuli kanthu. Zakumwa ndi organic zinthu zambiri: alcohols, masamba mafuta, zidulo.

Mkaka - .. An emulsion, ie, madzi amene m'malovu mafuta akupezeka. Zothandiza madzi malasha - mafuta. Tingafinye izo ku zitsime ndi zitsime za mafuta pa mtunda ndi nyanja. Nyanja madzi alinso zopangira kwa makampani. Kumasiyana ndi nyanja mwatsopano madzi ndi mitsinje ndi kusunga zinthu kusungunuka, makamaka salt. Ndi mayiwe pamwamba evaporation mu chimaposa nthunzi boma mamolekyulu yekha wa H ₂ O, solutes kukhala. Pa chuma pogwiritsa njira imeneyi apeza zakudya zochokera m'madzi ndi momwe kukonzamo.

Pamene wathunthu kuchotsa salt okonzeka ndi madzi otchezedwa. Iwo zithupsa pa 100 ° C, amaundana pa 0 ° C. Brines wiritsani ndi kutembenukira kwa ayezi pa zizindikiro zina kutentha. Mwachitsanzo, madzi mu Ocean Arctic amaundana pa kutentha padziko 2 ° C.

boma thupi la Mercury m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa - madzi. zitsulo Izi siliva imvi nthawi wodzazidwa ndi thermometer zachipatala. Pamene mkangano, ndi Mercury kukudza lonse, uko ndi wothandizila kukula. Chifukwa mu thermometers msewu ntchito akuda ndi wofiira utoto mowa m'malo Mercury? Zimenezi zalongosoledwa ndi katundu wa zitsulo madzi. Pa madigiri 30 pansi pa ziro Mercury kusintha akaphatikiza boma, nkhani amakhala olimba.

Ngati thermometer zachipatala anathyola nozoleka Mercury, mipira siliva kusonkhanitsa zida zoopsa. Zovulaza pokoka mpweya Mercury nthuzi, ndi chinthu poizoni kwambiri. Ana Zikatero m'pofunika atithandize ya makolo, anthu akuluakulu.

boma gaseous

Gaza si akasamuka wake kapena buku kapena mawonekedwe. Lembani botololo kwa mpweya pamwamba (mankhwala chilinganizo ake O _2). Mwamsanga pamene tikutsegula botololo, tinthu wa mankhwala adzakhala wothira mpweya mu chipinda. Ichi ndi chifukwa zoyenda Brownian. The wakale Greek wasayansi Democritus ankakhulupirira kuti nkhani particles ndi zoyenda zonse. The zolimba pansi yachibadwa zinthu, ma atomu, mamolekyu, ayoni, palibe kuthekera kusiya kophimba Krustalo, free ku mauthenga ndi particles ena. Izi zimatheka pamene wambirimbiri mphamvu kuchokera kunja.

Mu zakumwa, mtunda wa pakati particles ndi akuluakulu pang'ono kuposa zolimba, iwo amafuna zochepa mphamvu kuti ndisiye intermolecular. Mwachitsanzo, madzi boma akaphatikiza mpweya unkachitika yekha pa m'munsi kutentha mpweya kuti -183 ° C. Pa -223 ° C O ₂ molekyulu kupanga olimba. Pamene kutentha limatuluka pamwamba mfundo anapatsidwa n'kukhala mpweya oxygen. Mu njira imeneyi ndi m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa. Pa maofesi mafakitale ndi unsembe wapadera kulekanitsa mpweya m'mlengalenga ndi kupeza therefrom asafe ndi oxygen. Choyamba, mpweya utakhazikika ndi liquefied, ndiyeno pang'onopang'ono kuonjezera kutentha. Asafe ndi mpweya mtima mu mpweya pa zinthu zosiyanasiyana.

m'mlengalenga lili 21% ndi buku la mpweya ndi 78% asafe. Mu madzi mawonekedwe, zinthu izi sapezeka envelopu gaseous dzikoli. Phula mpweya ali kuwala buluu mtundu, ndi wodzazidwa ndi zonenepa kuthamanga ntchito mu zipatala. Makampani ndi kumanga, mipweya liquefied ndi zofunika njira zambiri. Mpweya zingamuthandize mpweya kuwotcherera ndi kudula zitsulo, Chemistry - chifukwa zochita zochita kupanga ndi organic kanthu makutidwe ndi okosijeni. Ngati valavu mpweya yamphamvu lotseguka anzawo yafupika, madzi kwasanduka mpweya.

Liquefied propane, methane ndi byuteni ankagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu, zoyendera, komanso zinthu zochitika m'banja la anthu. zinthu izi kuwapeza gasi kapena akulimbana (pogawanikana pamawere) wa feedstock mafuta. Mpweya madzi ndi kusakaniza gaseous mbali yofunika kwambiri pa chuma cha mayiko ambiri. Koma mafuta ndiponso gasi nkhokwe ali kwambiri zatha. Asayansi amati nkhaniyi lidzakhalapo kwa zaka 100-120. mphamvu zina gwero - otaya mpweya (mphepo). Ntchito zomera mphamvu zolimba loyenda mitsinje, mafunde m'mphepete mwa nyanja ndipo nyanja.

Mpweya, komanso mpweya zina zimene boma chachinayi cha loitanirana, ikuimira plasma. Zachilendo kusintha kuchokera olimba boma gaseous - Mbali khalidwe la ayodini crystalline. Mankhwala mdima wofiirira amaloŵamo sublimation - kwasanduka mpweya sitinadzere mwa boma madzi.

Monga kusintha kuchokera akaphatikiza wina kwa mtundu wina wa nkhani?

Kusintha boma akaphatikiza zinthu ndi zosagwirizana ndi kusinthika mankhwala, zodabwitsazi thupi. Pamene kutentha limatuluka, zolimba ambiri kusungunula mu madzi. kuwonjezeka kutentha kungachititse kuti evaporation, mwachitsanzo kuti boma gaseous pa nkhaniyi. Chikhalidwe ndi chuma, kusintha ngati ali khalidwe la munthu wa zinthu zofunika kwambiri pa Dziko Lapansi. Ice, madzi, nthunzi, wakuwonekera - khalidwe la madzi mu mapangidwe osiyana. Pawiri ali yemweyo, chilinganizo ake - H ₂ O. Pa kutentha 0 ° C ndi pansi madzi crystallizes, amene n'kukhala ayezi. Monga ukuwonjezeka kutentha anachititsa timibulu anawonongedwa - ayezi chimasungunula, madzi madzi kachiwiri analandira. Anapanga pamene Kutentha nthunzi. Evaporation - kusintha kwa madzi mu mpweya - ngakhale pa otsika kutentha. Mwachitsanzo, puddles mazira zayamba kutha, chifukwa madzi ukuphwera. Ngakhale mu nyengo yozizira uphwetsa zovala yonyowa, koma ndondomeko ndi wautali kuposa tsiku lotentha.

Onse kusintha awa madzi boma wina ndi mzake n'zofunika kwambiri kuti chikhalidwe cha Earth. zinthu mumlengalenga, nyengo ndi nyengo zokhudzana ndi evaporation wa madzi kuchokera pamwamba pa nyanja, kulanda chinyontho mawonekedwe a mitambo ndi chifunga pa dziko, mpweya (mvula, matalala, matalala). zopambana izi ndi maziko a mkombero madzi a dziko lapansi.

Kodi kusintha mkhalidwe wa loitanirana sulfure?

M'mikhalidwe wamba sulfure - .. Kodi yowala timibulu chonyezimira kapena kuwala ufa koma wachikasu, mwachitsanzo olimba. Thupi kusintha sulfure boma pamene usavutike. Choyamba, kutentha liukitsidwa kwa 190 ° C chikasu chimasungunula olimba, kukhala madzi a m'manja.

Ngati mofulumira kutsanulira sulfure madzi m'madzi ozizira, likukhalira bulauni amorphous misa. Pa Kutentha zina sulufule osungunula umakhala viscous mdima. Pa kutentha pamwamba 300 ° C sulfure akaphatikiza boma kachiwiri kusintha mankhwala amakhala katundu madzimadzi, amakhala makina. kusintha Awa chifukwa cha luso maatomu membala kupanga maunyolo zotalika mosiyanasiyana.

Chifukwa nkhaniyo akhoza kukhala mu maiko osiyana thupi?

Thupi boma sulfure - losavuta mankhwala - ndi olimba pa yozungulira zinthu. Sulfa woipa - gasi, asidi sulfuric - ndi madzi wochuluka yolemera kuposa madzi. Mosiyana zidulo hydrochloric ndi nitric si oyaka, pamwamba pake alibe asamasanduke nthunzi molekyulu. zili loitanirana wa sulfure pulasitiki, amene analandira ndi Kutentha timibulu chiyani?

Mawonekedwe amorphous ali ndi dongosolo la thunthu madzi, ndi otsika fluidity. Koma pulasitiki sulfure pa nthawi yomweyo lofotokozabe mawonekedwe ake (wolimba). Pali timibulu madzi, likhale angapo katundu khalidwe la zolimba. Motero, boma la thunthu m'mikhalidwe yosiyana zimadalira chikhalidwe chake, kutentha, kuthamanga ndi zinthu zina zachilengedwe.

ndi mbali mu kapangidwe ka zolimba zimene?

Kusiyanitsa limati zofunika akaphatikiza pa nkhaniyi anafotokoza ndi zimene zimachitika pakati pa maatomu, ayoni ndi mamolekyulu. Mwachitsanzo, chifukwa boma olimba a nkhani kumabweretsa mphamvu kukhalabe kukula thupi ndi kutiumba? Mu latisi galasi la mchere chitsulo kapena particles structural amakopeka ndi mzake. Mu zitsulo, ndithu mlandu ayoni kucheza ndi otchedwa "mpweya elekitironi" - kudzikundikira ma elekitironi mfulu chidutswa zitsulo. Timibulu salt ndi chifukwa kukopa kwa particles oppositely mlandu - ayoni. Mtunda pakati pa mayunitsi structural wa zolimba pamwamba ndi zochepa kwambiri kusiyana ndi miyeso ya particles okha. Mu nkhani iyi, electrostatic kukopa zochita, izo amatipatsa mphamvu, ndi repulsion silamphamvu.

Kuwononga boma olimba a kanthu, tiyenera kuchita khama. Zitsulo salt, ndi timibulu atomiki kusungunula pa kutentha kwambiri. Mwachitsanzo, chitsulo amakhala madzi pa kutentha pamwamba 1538 ° C. Refractory ndi tungsten, izo amapangidwa kuchokera filament kuti mababu filament. Pali kasakaniza wazitsulo kuti kukhala madzi pa kutentha pamwamba 3000 ° C. Ambiri miyala ndi mchere Padziko Lapansi ali mu mkhalidwe olimba. Nkhanizi yaiwisi atamupopa mothandizidwa ndi luso m'migodi ndi quarries.

Ng'ambani ngakhale ion limodzi la galasi n'kofunika amaika yambiri mphamvu. Koma ndi wokwanira kupasuka mchere mu madzi kophimba galasi ndi wosweka! chodabwitsa Ichi ndi chifukwa katundu zodabwitsa za madzi monga zosungunulira kumalo ozizira. H ₂ O mamolekyulu anatani ndi ayoni mchere, kuwononga ubale wa pakati pa iwo. Choncho, yanyumba - si yapafupi kusanganikirana zinthu zosiyana, ndipo mogwirizana thupi-mankhwala pakati pawo.

Kodi kucheza ndi mamolekyulu zakumwa?

Madzi kukhala madzi, olimba ndi mpweya (nthunzi). Main akaphatikiza uliri m'mikhalidwe yachibadwa. Mamolekyulu madzi wapangidwa ndi atomu imodzi mpweya, amene amagwirizana ndi maatomu wa hydrogen awiri. kugawanika kumeneko kumangidwa mankhwala molekyulu ndi ikuoneka kuti maatomu mpweya tsankho mlandu negative. Haidrojeni amakhala mzati abwino molekyulu, izo amakopeka ndi mpweya atomu a molekyulu wina. Izi zimachitika ofooka umatchedwa "mgwirizano wa hydrogen".

Phula akaphatikiza boma yodziwika ndi mtunda pakati pa particles structural kukula mofanana. The kukopa alipo, koma ndi ofooka, kotero madzi si kusunga mawonekedwe. Vaporization kumachitika chifukwa cha chiwonongeko cha kumangidwa, amene ali padziko madzi ngakhale firiji.

Kodi pali intermolecular ankachita mu mpweya?

ndi chiwerengero cha magawo gaseous boma la nkhani wosiyana olimba ndi madzi. Pakati pa particles structural mpweya, pali mipata yaikulu, kutali choposa kukula kwa mamolekyulu. Pankhaniyi, mphamvu ya kukopa sachiza. Boma gaseous wa loitanirana khalidwe la zinthu alipo zikuchokera mpweya: asafe, Mpweya wabwino. Chithunzi pansipa kyubu woyamba wodzazidwa ndi mafuta, madzi wachiwiri, ndi wachitatu - chinthu cholimba.

zakumwa zambiri ndi loopsali, alibe pamwamba ndi kupita ku mamolekyulu mpweya mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, ngati una kutsegula mabotolo ndi acid amathiridwa kubweretsa thonje ubweya ankawaviika amoniya madzi, amene amapezeka utsi woyera. Mwachindunji mu mlengalenga amayambitsa zotsatira mankhwala pakati chidulo hydrochloric ndi amoniya, mankhwala enaake ammonium analandira. Imene boma la loitanirana ndi zinthu izi? particles ake kupanga utsi woyera, ali wamng'ono olimba mchere mibulu. Zimenezi ziyenera kuchitidwa pansi pa nyumba, ndi poizoni.

Pomaliza

Thupi boma mpweya kuphunzira ndi sayansi ambiri apadera ndi akatswiri: chiwerengero Avogadro a, Boyle, Gay-Lussac, Clapeyron, Mendeleyev, Le Chatelier. Asayansi kukonza malamulo amene amafotokoza khalidwe la zinthu gaseous mu mankhwala anachita, monga kusintha zinthu. malamulo Open sanapite yekha mu mabuku sukulu ndi yunivesite ya sayansi zimapangidwira. Ambiri mankhwala kupanga pomvera khalidwe ndi katundu zinthu limati osiyana akaphatikiza.